Hertel, John P., & Millis, Barbara J. (2002).  Using simulations to promote learning in higher education: An introduction.  Sterling, VA: Stylus.

WHY SIMULATIONS FURTHER EDUCATIONAL GOALS

• Simulations weave information into real-world problems in meaningful ways.
• Simulations promote transfer of knowledge.  They help bridge the gap between the academics of a profession and the practice of that profession.
• Simulations promote application of skills.
• Simulations teach, not only skills, but processes, organizations, and the interactions with other  disciplines, people and organizations.
• Simulations can lead to “deep” learning.
• They are more appropriate for the growing cadre of nontraditional-age students, many of whom have significant experience in the workplace.
• Simulations fight misconceptions by giving glimpses into what people in a given profession actually do.

Motivation

• We need to consider motivation beforehand.
• Learners must be active participants.
• Instruction must be capable of being paced for each learner.
• There must be prompt feedback on success and error.

“Deep” Learning Happens When

• We’re motivated.
• We “do”, but we also are helped to connect our behaviors with abstract principles.
• We interact with others.
• We create a well-structured knowledge base by reshaping the prior knowledge we bring to the activity and integrating them with new knowledge.

Interaction

Alexander Astin (1993) comprehensive longitudinal study investigated 22 outcomes affected by 88 environmental variables, and concluded that two variables carry the largest weights and affect the greatest number of outcomes:

• student-student interaction
• student-faculty interaction

Syllabi

Since students’ perceptions of your teaching and assessment methods can prove just as important as the methods themselves, include clear information about the nature, purpose, and value of simulations in your syllabi.

Student-Centered Learning

Leamnson (1999) concluded that when professors prepare brilliant lectures, they change their own brains far more than those of their students.  Therefore, he argues in favor of student centered learned because “student brains are the ones that need to change”.

WHAT IS AN EDUCATION SIMULATION?

Simulations are based on reality.

However, they only include the aspects of reality deemed appropriate for the learning context.

Ruben and Lederman (1982) characterized simulations as:

1)       Participants cast in roles

2)       Interactions between those roles

3)       Rules governing the interactions

4)       Goals with respect to which interactions occur

5)       Criteria for determining when goals have been obtained and when to terminate the activity. 

Gredler (1992) says:

·         Simulations are problem-based units of learning

·         They are set in motion by a particular task, issue, policy, crisis, or problem.

·         The subject matter, setting, and issues are not “textbook” and do not have quick cut-and-dried solutiuons.

·         Participants carry out functions according to role and setting.

·         Outcomes are not governed by chance or luck.

·         Participants experience “reality” to the extent that they fulfill their roles conscientiously and professionally.

The Teacher’s Role

In a simulation-based classroom, the teacher is less expert, leader, judge, or tester, and more a facilitator, helper, and resource person.  Power is more shared.

Student Roles

1)       Essential or key roles

2)       Peripheral roles

3)       Simulation support characters

The Simulation Environment

·         The term “environment” here is less about physical surroundings and more about the situation.

·         The environment should possess “reality of function”—that is, there should be no “canned” decisions, no scripted actions, and participants should be allowed to make their own decisions.

·         With such freedom, the rules for interactions must be carefully formulated.

·         The debriefing is very important to the learning and should not be given short shrift.

DESIGNING AN EDUCATION SIMULATION

Ingredients Count Most

The analogy is cooking, where the good cook moves back and forth with no strict recipe, tasting and manipulating ingredients, temperatures and cooking methods (only in this case, the instructor moves among learning objects. Role descriptions, tasks, etc.).

Big Classes

You can

·         Put the class into several similar groups, or

·         Group people with the same roles together into “departments”

How to Begin

• Write About What You Know--You’ll concoct a better story if you know the characters, conflicts, and issues.
• To get inspiration, check the sidebars in texts other than the one you’re using, or skim the newspaper.

SAMPLE SIMULATION

Roles

• Prosecutors: e.g., lawyers, witnesses, expert witnesses, detectives
• Defense: e.g., lawyers, defendants, witnesses, expert witnesses, detectives
• Jury: includes foreperson
• Professor is judge
• Remember, there can be essential, supporting, and secondary roles.

Procedure

• The opening scene should be compelling to obtain buy-in
• There should be instructions for interactions
• Include rules of procedure for roles and organizations.
• The trial lasts two days of class time.
• Debrief papers are due one week after the “trial”.

Documentation

• Supporting “evidence” is included
• Include real (or slightly simplified and altered) documents

MANAGING AN EDUCATION SIMULATION

Try to anticipate management issues in advance.

Management decisions affect the “flow” of the simulation.

• You must have clear learning objectives
• The simulation must have a simple structure that enables participants to move quickly and progressively
• You must provide appropriate instructions

 The Orientation Focuses On:

1)       Explanation of what simulations are and what they aren’t

2)       Background, roles, tasks, environment

3)       Specific instructions for participating

 Stress the need to act professionally and “in character”

The point is less about winning and more about functioning effectively and authentically in one’s role

Assigning Tasks

• The tasks are the heart of the simulation.
• Tasks should be based on learning objectives.
• Usually, tasks should be specific.
• They should result in deliverables.
• You should have a master task list so you can keep track or everyone in a complex simulation.

Still, allow flexibility in how the tasks are achieved.

Don’t tell people how to behave (unless academic ethical issues are involved).

Distributing Information

• For short simulations, provide all of the information to everyone.
• For longer simulations, provide information according to role. Still, provide everyone with common information such as the background and the anticipated actions of the essential roles.
• Use different methods of “releasing” documents---paper, email, web database…
• Be prepared.  Logistical problems can catapult people out of their roles and harm the “reality” of the simulation.

Scenario Processes

• Simplify processes as much as possible without compromising the “reality” of the simulation or creating an incorrect perception of the real-world process. Simplify forms and abbreviate steps.
• If possible, book actual conference rooms for meetings.
• Students should dress appropriate to their roles.
• Students portraying related roles should sit together.
• If desired, assign one student to be in charge of the rules for each complex process.

Instructions for Participants

Details are important, and every major detail should be addressed, including:

• criteria for grading attendance and participation
• the format of the deliverables and concluding reports
• rules for student-student contact
• rules for instructor-student contact
• rules for accessing one’s email
• allowable outside help

Instructor Management Role

Students often seek help in three areas:

1)       Clarification on facts

2)       Mechanics of the simulation

3)       Advice on how to act in their assigned roles

Managing Time

·         You can give out initial information in one or more class periods preceding the simulation.

·         If the simulation is more than one class period in length, break it into phases.

·         Make sure each role is on the same timeline.

Well, that’s it for the summary.  Here are the other chapters:

• DEBRIEFING AN EDUCATION SIMULATION
• RESPONSIBLE ASSESSMENT
• AN EXTENDED SIMULATION